 \newcommand{\bi}{\begin{itemize}}
 \newcommand{\ei}{\end{itemize}}
 \newcommand{\be}{\begin{questions}}
 \newcommand{\ee}{\end{questions}}
\newcommand{\mc}[1]{\mathcal{#1}}
\let\simeq\approx

%%%%%%

%%figure
%%%%%%
 \newcommand{\Onefig}[2]{
 \begin{center}
\begin{figure}[h]
 \includegraphics{#1}
% \par
\caption{#2}\end{figure}
 \end{center}
 }

 \newcommand{\Formule}[2]{
         \begin{minipage}[c]{#2}
                 \begin{center}
                \includegraphics{#1}
                 \end{center}
         \end{minipage}
 }

 \newcommand{\Formuleb}[2]{
         \begin{minipage}[b]{#2}
                 \begin{center}
                \includegraphics{#1}
                 \end{center}
         \end{minipage}
 }

 \newcommand{\Formuleex}[3]{
\raisebox{#3ex}{
         \begin{minipage}[c]{#2}
%                 \begin{center}
                \includegraphics{#1}
 %                \end{center}
         \end{minipage}}
 }


\newcommand{\Form}[1]{
%\vspace*{-5mm}
\begin{center}
        \includegraphics{#1}
\end{center}
%\vspace*{-5mm}
}

\newcommand{\form}[1]{
\begin{center}
        \includegraphics[scale=0.83]{#1}
\end{center}
}



\newcommand{\Twopic}[4]{
    \begin{minipage}[c]{#1cm}{#2}
    \end{minipage}
    \begin{minipage}[c]{#3cm}
        \begin{center}
        \includegraphics{#4}
        \end{center}
    \end{minipage}
    }




 \newcommand{\conclusion}[1]{
         \definecolor{conc}{gray}{0.9}
\begin{center}
\colorbox{conc}{
    \begin{minipage}[c]{0.9\linewidth}
%\begin{minipage}[b]{0.8cm}
%{\par\addvspace{1.5ex}\noindent{\hspace*{0.2em}\Large\raisebox{-0.35ex}{\ding{43}}}
%\hspace{0.5em}\ignorespaces}
%{\par\addvspace{1.5ex}}
#1
%\end{minipage}
%   essai:
    \end{minipage}
}
\end{center}
         }


%\newcommand{\ccl}[2]{
%         \definecolor{conc}{gray}{0.9}
%\begin{center}
%\colorbox{conc}{
%    \begin{minipage}[c]{#1cm}
%#2
%    \end{minipage}
%}
%\end{center}
%         }









\newcommand{\ep}{\varepsilon}

\let\numero\no
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
% raccourci phys
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
\newcommand{\inv}[1] {^{-{#1}}}
\newcommand{\vect}[2]{{\vec{#1}}_{#2}^{\,*}}
%\newcommand{\partiel}[3]{
%        \left. \frac{\partial #1}{\partial #2}\right|_{#3}}
%\newcommand{\dpartiel}[3]{
%        \left. \dfrac{\partial #1}{\partial #2}\right|_{#3}}
\newcommand{\Der}[3]{
        \left. \frac{\dd #1}{\dd #2}\right|_{#3}}
\newcommand{\cDer}[3]{
        \left. \cfrac{\dd #1}{\dd #2}\right|_{#3}}
\newcommand{\dDer}[3]{
        \left. \dfrac{\dd #1}{\dd #2}\right|_{#3}}
\newcommand{\argsh}{\operatorname{argsh}\,}
\newcommand{\argch}{\operatorname{argch}\,}
\newcommand{\derpar}[2]{\frac{\partial #1}{\partial #2}}
\newcommand{\dderpar}[2]{\dfrac{\partial #1}{\partial #2}}
\newcommand{\cderpar}[2]{\cfrac{\partial #1}{\partial #2}}
\newcommand{\derivee}[3]{\left(\frac{\partial #1}{\partial #2}\right)_{#3}}
\newcommand{\dderivee}[3]{\left(\dfrac{\partial #1}{\partial #2}\right)_{#3}}
\newcommand{\cderivee}[3]{\left(\cfrac{\partial #1}{\partial #2}\right)_{#3}}
%%\renewcommand{\degre}{\text{\degres{} C}}
%\newcommand{\degr}{\text{\degres{}}}
%\newcommand{\grad}{\vect{\text{grad}}}
\newcommand{\grad}{\gvec{\operatorname{grad}}\,}
\newcommand{\dive}{\operatorname{div}}
\newcommand{\cotan}{\operatorname{cotan}}
\newcommand{\mean}[1]{\left\langle #1\right\rangle}
\newcommand{\ov}[1]{\overline{#1}}

\newcommand{\AArc}
{\setlength{\unitlength}{1mm}%
\begin{picture}(-2,0)(2,0)%
    \linethickness{0.3pt}%
    \qbezier(-0.7,-0.4)(1.05,0.9)(2.8,-0.4)%
    \end{picture}}
    \newcommand{\arc}[1]{\overset{\AArc}{#1}}



\newcommand{\usi}{\textup{ S.I.}}
\newcommand{\Max}{\textup{max}}
\newcommand{\Min}{\textup{min}}
%\newcommand{\Arc}[1]{\overset{\frown}{#1}}
%\newcommand{\fn}[1]{{\footnotesize #1}}
%\newcommand{\TR}{\textup{R}}

%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
%RACOURCIS CHIMIE%
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
\newcommand{\cntp}{{\it C.N.T.P.}}
%\newcommand{\si}{\text{Si}}

\newcommand{\ox}{\textup{O}}
\newcommand{\carb}{\textup{C}}
\newcommand{\mg}{\textup{Mg}}
\newcommand{\e}{\textup{e}^-}
\newcommand{\M}{\textup{ mol}\cdot\textup{L} ^{-1}}
\newcommand{\pcent}{\textup{\%}}
\newcommand{\fe}{\textup{Fe}}
\newcommand{\mn}{\textup{Mn}}
\newcommand{\mno}{\textup{MnO}}
\newcommand{\al}{\textup{Al}}
\newcommand{\h}{\textup{H}}
\newcommand{\cl}{\textup{Cl}}
%\newcommand{\am}{\text{A}^-}
%\newcommand{\ah}{\text{AH}}
\newcommand{\n}{\textup{N}}
\newcommand{\ti}{\text{Ti}}
\newcommand{\ag}{\textup{Ag}}
\newcommand{\sn}{\textup{Sn}}
\newcommand{\na}{\textup{Na}}
\newcommand{\K}{\textup{K}}
\newcommand{\CO}{\textup{CO}}
\newcommand{\he}{\textup{He}}
\newcommand{\B}{\textup{B}}
\newcommand{\D}{\textup{D}}
%\newcommand{\ga}{\text{Ga}}
%\newcommand{\In}{\text{In}}
\newcommand{\tl}{\textup{Tl}}
%\newcommand{\angstrom}{\overset{\circ}{\text{A}}}
\newcommand{\NO}{\textup{NO}}
%\renewcommand{\N}{\text{N}}
\newcommand{\au}{\text{Au}}
\newcommand{\cu}{\textup{Cu}}
\newcommand{\p}{\textup{P}}
%\newcommand{\as}{\text{As}}
%\newcommand{\Sb}{\text{Sb}}
\newcommand{\F}{\textup{F}}
\newcommand{\Br}{\textup{Br}}
%\newcommand{\asbr}{\as\Br}
\newcommand{\ca}{\textup{Ca}}
\newcommand{\Be}{\textup{Be}}
%\newcommand{\Sr}{\text{Sr}}
\newcommand{\Ba}{\textup{Ba}}
\newcommand{\Pb}{\textup{Pb}}
\newcommand{\s}{\textup{S}}
\newcommand{\Co}{\textup{Co}}
\newcommand{\cs}{\textup{Cs}}
\newcommand{\Rb}{\textup{Rb}}
\newcommand{\li}{\textup{Li}}
\newcommand{\V}{\textup{V}}
\newcommand{\hydro}{\h _3\ox ^+}
\newcommand{\oh}{\ox\h}
\newcommand{\HO}{\h\ox}
%\newcommand{\methane}{\carb\h _4}
\newcommand{\eau}{\h _2\ox}
%\newcommand{\benz}{\carb _6\h _5\carb\ox\ox}
%\newcommand{\acet}{\carb\h _3\carb\ox\ox}
%\newcommand{\conc}[1]{\left[ #1\right]}
\newcommand{\enth}{\textup{ kJ}\cdot\textup{mol}^{-1}}
%\newcommand{\formation}{\Delta _r\h ^0_f}
\newcommand{\gaz}{(\textup{gaz})}
\newcommand{\liq}{(\textup{liq})}
\newcommand{\Sol}{(\textup{sol})}
\newcommand{\aq}{(\textup{aq})}
\newcommand{\I}{\textup{I}}
\newcommand{\Rr}{\textup{R}}
\newcommand{\SO}{\textup{SO}}
\newcommand{\NH}{\textup{NH}}
%\newcommand{\enthalpi}{\Delta\text{H}^0}
\newcommand{\Zn}{\textup{Zn}}
%\newcommand{\liaison}[2]{#1\negthickspace -\negthickspace #2}
%\newcommand{\MLL}{\ag (\NH _3)_2^+}
\newcommand{\MM}{\textup{M}}
%\newcommand{\pNH}{\text{p}\NH _3}
\newcommand{\CN}{\textup{CN}}
\newcommand{\SCN}{\textup{SCN}}
%\newcommand{\UR}{\Delta _r\text{U}^0}
\newcommand{\Ni}{\textup{Ni}}
\newcommand{\HS}{\textup{HS}}
\newcommand{\HHS}{\textup{H}_2\textup{S}}
%\newcommand{\barre}[1]{\overline{#1}_i}
%\newcommand{\BrO}{\text{BrO}}
%\newcommand{\Lig}{\text{L}}
\newcommand{\A}{\textup{A}}
\newcommand{\pH}{\operatorname{pH}}
\newcommand{\pL}{\operatorname{pL}}
\newcommand{\pp}{\operatorname{p}}
%\newcommand{\pK}{\text{p}K}
%\newcommand{\feL}{\text{FeL}}
\newcommand{\U}{\textup{U}}
%\newcommand{\UO}{\text{UO}}
\newcommand{\CH}{\textup{CH}}
\newcommand{\alcane}[2]{\carb _{#1}\h _{#2}}
%\newcommand{\azo}{\liaison{\CH _3\n}{\n\CH _3}}
\newcommand{\Cr}{\textup{Cr}}
\newcommand{\CrO}{\textup{CrO}}
\newcommand{\CRO}{\Cr _2\ox _7}
\newcommand{\cro}{\Cr\ox _4}
%\newcommand{\J}{\text{J}}
\newcommand{\Y}{\textup{Y}}
%\newcommand{\ferro}{\fe (\CN )_6}
%\newcommand{\Dr}[1]{\Delta _{\text{r}}\text{#1}}
%\newcommand{\DrU}{\Delta _rU}
%\newcommand{\DrH}{\Delta _rH}
%\newcommand{\DrG}{\Delta _rG}
%\newcommand{\DrS}{\Delta _rS}
%\newcommand{\DrCp}{\Delta _rC_p}
%\newcommand{\methyl}{\carb\h _3}
%\newcommand{\meth}{\carb\h _2}
\newcommand{\liai}{\text{$\text{--}$}}
%\renewcommand{\Z}{\text{Z}}
\newcommand{\X}{\textup{X}}
\newcommand{\Nu}{\textup{Nu}}
\newcommand{\bu}{\bullet}
%\newcommand{\Ph}{\text{P}}
\newcommand{\dbl}{=}
%\newcommand{\MgX}{\mg\X}
\newcommand{\Si}{\textup{Si}}
%\newcommand{\Ar}{\text{Ar}}
%\newcommand{\Fe}{\text{Fe}}
%\newcommand{\So}{\text{S}}
\renewcommand{\comp}[1]{\left[ #1\right]}
\newcommand{\paren}[1]{\left(#1\right)}
\newcommand{\module}[1]{\left|#1\right|}
\newcommand{\acco}[1]{\left\{#1\right\}}
%\newcommand{\sph}{\upharpoonleft}
%\newcommand{\spb}{\downharpoonright}
\newcommand{\PO}{\textup{PO}}
\newcommand{\mt}{\textup{M}}
\newcommand{\Ti}{\textup{Ti}}
\newcommand{\Hg}{\textup{Hg}}
%\newcommand{\Zr}{\text{Zr}}
\newcommand{\COO}{\textup{COO}}
\newcommand{\CHO}{\textup{CHO}}
%\newcommand{\oh}{\text{OH}}
\newcommand{\LL}{\mathcal{L}}
\newcommand{\Ll}{\textup{L}}
\newcommand{\Cd}{\textup{Cd}}
\newcommand{\Ox}{\textup{Ox}}
\newcommand{\Red}{\textup{Red}}
\newcommand{\Mn}{\textup{Mn}}
\newcommand{\Pt}{\textup{Pt}}
%\newcommand{\OX}{\carb _2\ox _4}
\newcommand{\thio}{\s _2\ox _3}
%\newcommand{\MnO}{\Mn\ox_4}
\newcommand{\MnO}{\Mn\ox}
%\newcommand{\Ce}{\text{Ce}}
\newcommand{\ClO}{\textup{ClO}}
%\newcommand{\dia}{\carb _{\text{dia}}}
%\newcommand{\gra}{\carb _{\text{gra}}}
%\newcommand{\fed}{\fe _2\ox _3}
%\newcommand{\gypse}{\ca\SO _4,\,2\eau}

\newcommand{\mL}{\textup{ mL}}
\newcommand{\ml}{\textup{ mL}}
\newcommand{\Deg}{\text{\degres{}}}
\newcommand{\oxy}{\h _2\ox _2}
\newcommand{\tetra}{\s_4\ox_6}
\newcommand{\per}{\s _2\ox _8}
\newcommand{\ETH}{\carb _2\h _5}
\newcommand{\Us}{\textup{ s}}
\newcommand{\dossier}{ElMagn}
\newcommand{\Figures}{ElMagn}
\newcommand{\norme}[1]{\left\| #1\right\|}
\newcommand{\fem}{f.e.m.}
\newcommand{\fcem}{f.c.e.m.}
\newcommand{\UJ}{\textup{ J}}
\newcommand{\UV}{\textup{ V}}
\newcommand{\UA}{\textup{ A}}
\newcommand{\UmA}{\textup{ mA}}
\newcommand{\eV}{\textup{ eV}}
\newcommand{\UW}{\textup{ W}}
\def\textmu{$\mu$}
\newcommand{\UkJ}{\textup{ kJ}}
\newcommand{\UT}{\textup{ T}}
\newcommand{\UmT}{\textup{ mT}}
\newcommand{\Uraideur}{\textup{ N}\cdot\textup{m}^{-1}}
\newcommand{\Uangle}{\textup{ rad}}
\newcommand{\mmol}{\textup{ g}\cdot\textup{mol}^{-1}}
\newcommand{\Uvangle}{\textup{ rad}\cdot\textup{s}^{-1}}
\newcommand{\KUvangle}{\textup{ rad.min}^{-1}}
\newcommand{\Angle}[1]{\stackrel{\frown}{#1}}
\newcommand{\Um}{\textup{ m}}
\newcommand{\Ukm}{\textup{ km}}
\newcommand{\Ufreq}{\textup{ Hz}}
\newcommand{\E}{\textup{E}}
\newcommand{\Ucm}{\textup{ cm}}
\newcommand{\UKvitesse}{\textup{ km}\cdot\textup{h}^{-1}}
\newcommand{\Uvitesse}{\textup{ m}\cdot\textup{s}^{-1}}
\newcommand{\Uacc}{\textup{ m}\cdot\textup{s}^{-2}}
\newcommand{\Unewton}{\textup{ N}}
\newcommand{\Hz}{\textup{ Hz}}
\newcommand{\Uforce}{\textup{ N}\cdot\textup{kg}^{-1}}
\newcommand{\Ugr}{\textup{ g}}
\newcommand{\Ukg}{\textup{ kg}}
\newcommand{\Umg}{\textup{ mg}}
\newcommand{\griser}{\colorbox[gray]{0.9}}
\newcommand{\ANns}[2]{$$#1\eqno{\griser{$\displaystyle #2$}}$$}
\newcommand{\gris}[1]{\begin{center}\griser{$\displaystyle #1$}\end{center}}
\newcommand{\gri}[1]{\text{\griser{$\displaystyle #1$}}}
%\newcommand{\AN}[2]{\ANns{#1}{#2}}
\newcommand{\ANnsonly}[1]{\ANns{\hphantom{A}}{#1}}
\newcommand{\ANonly}[1]{\ANns{\hphantom{A}}{#1}}
\newcommand{\donnee}[1]{{\it Donn\'ee} : {#1}}
\newcommand{\bdonnees}[1]{{\it Donn\'ees} : #1 \begin{list}{$\bullet$}{\itemsep=0pt\topsep=3pt\parsep=3pt}}
\newcommand{\edonnees}{\end{list}}
\newcommand{\ba}{\begin{array}}
\newcommand{\ea}{\end{array} }
\newcommand{\bt}{\begin{tabular}}
\newcommand{\et}{\end{tabular} }
\newcommand{\bc}{\begin{center}}
\newcommand{\ec}{\end{center}}
\newcommand{\SC}{\textsc}
\newcommand{\bmini}{$\begin{minipage}[c]}
\newcommand{\emini}{\end{minipage}$}
\newcommand{\rep}[1]{\left(#1,\,\vec{\imath},\,\vec{\jmath},\,\vec{k}\right)}
\newcommand{\repere}{\rep{O}}
\newcommand{\Grepere}{\rep{G}}
\newcommand{\vcoord}[2]{
\begin{pmatrix}#1 \\
#2\end{pmatrix}}
\newcommand{\Vcoord}[3]{
\begin{pmatrix}#1 \\
#2\\ #3
\end{pmatrix}}
%\newcommand{\isotope}[3]{
%{\negthickspace\negthickspace\footnotesize\begin{array}{r}#1\\ #2\end{array}}\textup{#3}
%}
%%%%%%%%%%%%% Macro isotope
\makeatletter
%\newcommand{\isotopestyle}{\mathrm}
\newcommand{\isotope}[3]{%
   \settowidth\@tempdimb{\ensuremath{\scriptstyle#1}}
   \settowidth\@tempdimc{\ensuremath{\scriptstyle#2}}%
   \ifnum\@tempdimb>\@tempdimc
   	\setlength{\@tempdima}{\@tempdimb}
   \else
   	\setlength{\@tempdima}{\@tempdimc}
   \fi
  \begingroup%
    ^{\makebox[\@tempdima][r]{\ensuremath{\scriptstyle#1}}}%
    _{\makebox[\@tempdima][r]{\ensuremath{\scriptstyle#2}}}%
    \text{#3}%
  \endgroup%
}%
\makeatother

\newcommand{\Ures}{\;\Omega}
\newcommand{\Ummol}{\textup{ g}\cdot\textup{mol}^{-1}}
\newcommand{\CMGP}{\textup{ J}\cdot\textup{K}^{-1}\cdot\textup{mol}^{-1}}
\newcommand{\UVmol}{\textup{ L}\cdot\textup{mol}^{-1}}
\newcommand{\UR}{\textup{J}\cdot\textup{K}^{-1}\cdot\textup{mol}^{-1}}
\newcommand{\valTG}{g=9,8\textup{ N}\cdot\textup{kg}^{-1}}
\newcommand{\valG}{g=10\textup{ N}\cdot\textup{kg}^{-1}}
\newcommand{\Mdegre}{\text{\degres}}
\newcommand{\hesp}{\text{ :}\hspace{7pt} }
\newcommand{\bsys}{\begin{eqnarray*}}
\newcommand{\esys}{\end{eqnarray*}}
%\newcommand{\implique}{\Longrightarrow}
%\newcommand{\esp}{\\[4pt]}
%\newcommand{\kUcapmas}{\text{ J.}\Utemp^{-1}.\text{g}^{-1}}
\newcommand{\Utemp}{ \Mdegre\textup{C}}
\newcommand{\UPlanck}{\textup{ J}\cdot\textup{s}}
\newcommand{\UPa}{\textup{ Pa}}
\newcommand{\UK}{\textup{ K}}
\newcommand{\Uenergie}{\textup{ J}\cdot\textup{mol}^{-1}}
\newcommand{\UKenergie}{\textup{ kJ}\cdot\textup{mol}^{-1}}
%\newcommand{\AArc}{
%{\setlength{\unitlength}{1mm}%
%\begin{picture}(-2,0)(2,0)%
%    \linethickness{0.3pt}%
%    \qbezier(-0.7,-0.4)(1.05,0.9)(2.8,-0.4)%
%    \end{picture}}
%    \newcommand{\AArcO}
%{\setlength{\unitlength}{1mm}%
%\begin{picture}(-2,0)(2,0)%
%    \linethickness{0.3pt}%
%    \qbezier(-0.7,-0.4)(1.05,0.9)(2.8,-0.4)%
%    \thinlines\put(2.5,-0.1){\vector(2,-1){1}}
%\end{picture}}
%    \newcommand{\arc}[1]{\overset{\AArc}{#1}}
%    \newcommand{\arcor}[1]{\overset{\AArcO}{#1}}
\newcommand{\Umvol}{\textup{ g}\cdot\textup{L}^{-1}}
\newcommand{\UMvol}{\textup{ kg}\cdot\textup{m}^{-3}}
\newcommand{\Usigma}{\textup{ S}\cdot\textup{m}^{-1}}
\newcommand{\US}{\textup{ S}}
\newcommand{\KM}{\textup{ mol}\cdot\textup{m}^{-3}}
\newcommand{\Ulambda}{\textup{ S}\cdot\textup{m}^2\cdot\textup{mol}^{-1}}
\newcommand{\Ucond}[1]{\lambda _{#1}}
\newcommand{\KUmvol}{\textup{ kg}\cdot\textup{m}^{-3}}
\newcommand{\KUmvoll}{\textup{ kg}\cdot\textup{L}^{-1}}
\newcommand{\Ucap}{\textup{ J}\cdot\Utemp^{-1}}
\newcommand{\Urot}{\textup{ tr}\cdot\textup{s}^{-1}}
\newcommand{\KUrot}{\textup{ tr}\cdot\textup{min}^{-1}}
\newcommand{\Umcarre}{\textup{ m}^2}
\newcommand{\Ummcarre}{\textup{ mm}^2}
\newcommand{\Ul}{\textup{ L}}
\newcommand{\Uldebit}{\Ul.\Us^{-1}}
\newcommand{\UHz}{\textup{ Hz}}
\newcommand{\noi}{\noindent}
\newcommand{\mesp}{\textup{\hspace{7pt}}}
\newcommand{\ub}[2]{\underbrace{#1}_{\text{#2}}}
\newcommand{\ob}[2]{\overbrace{#1}^{#2}}
\newcommand{\un}[1]{\underline{#1}}
\newcommand{\Umm}{\textup{ mm}}
\newcommand{\Umol}{\textup{ g}\cdot\textup{mol}^{-1}}
\newcommand{\vi}{\vec{\imath}}
\newcommand{\vj}{\vec{\jmath}}
\newcommand{\vI}{\vec{\imath '}}
\newcommand{\vJ}{\vec{\jmath '}}
\newcommand{\jm}{\mathrm{j}}
%\newcommand{\cosh}{\mathrm{cosh}}
%\newcommand{\sinh}{\mathrm{sinh}}
%\newcommand{\vectt}[1]{$\overrightarrow{#1}$}
\newcommand{\Umin}{\textup{ min}}
\newcommand{\Unite}[1]{\textup{ #1}}
